This Key Event Relationship is licensed under the Creative Commons BY-SA license. This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license allows for commercial use. If you remix, adapt, or build upon the material, you must license the modified material under identical terms.

Relationship: 1027

Title

A descriptive phrase which clearly defines the two KEs being considered and the sequential relationship between them (i.e., which is upstream, and which is downstream). More help

Decreased, Triiodothyronine (T3) leads to Reduced, Posterior swim bladder inflation

Upstream event

The causing Key Event (KE) in a Key Event Relationship (KER). More help

Decreased, Triiodothyronine (T3)

Downstream event

The responding Key Event (KE) in a Key Event Relationship (KER). More help

Reduced, Posterior swim bladder inflation

Key Event Relationship Overview

The utility of AOPs for regulatory application is defined, to a large extent, by the confidence and precision with which they facilitate extrapolation of data measured at low levels of biological organisation to predicted outcomes at higher levels of organisation and the extent to which they can link biological effect measurements to their specific causes.Within the AOP framework, the predictive relationships that facilitate extrapolation are represented by the KERs. Consequently, the overall WoE for an AOP is a reflection in part, of the level of confidence in the underlying series of KERs it encompasses. Therefore, describing the KERs in an AOP involves assembling and organising the types of information and evidence that defines the scientific basis for inferring the probable change in, or state of, a downstream KE from the known or measured state of an upstream KE. More help

AOPs Referencing Relationship

AOP Name	Adjacency	Weight of Evidence	Quantitative Understanding	Point of Contact	Author Status	OECD Status
Deiodinase 2 inhibition leading to increased mortality via reduced posterior swim bladder inflation	adjacent	Moderate	Low	Dries Knapen (send email)	Under Development: Contributions and Comments Welcome	WPHA/WNT Endorsed
Deiodinase 1 inhibition leading to increased mortality via reduced posterior swim bladder inflation	adjacent	Moderate	Low	Dries Knapen (send email)	Under Development: Contributions and Comments Welcome	WPHA/WNT Endorsed

Taxonomic Applicability

Latin or common names of a species or broader taxonomic grouping (e.g., class, order, family) that help to define the biological applicability domain of the KER.In general, this will be dictated by the more restrictive of the two KEs being linked together by the KER. More help

Term	Scientific Term	Evidence	Link
zebrafish	Danio rerio	High	NCBI
fathead minnow	Pimephales promelas	Moderate	NCBI

Sex Applicability

An indication of the the relevant sex for this KER. More help

Sex	Evidence
Unspecific	Moderate

Life Stage Applicability

An indication of the the relevant life stage(s) for this KER. More help

Term	Evidence
Embryo	High

Key Event Relationship Description

Provides a concise overview of the information given below as well as addressing details that aren’t inherent in the description of the KEs themselves. More help

Reduced T3 levels prohibit local TH action in the target tissues. The site of decreased T3 in this case is the swim bladder. Since swim bladder development and/or inflation is regulated by thyroid hormones, this results in impaired posterior chamber inflation.

Evidence Collection Strategy

Include a description of the approach for identification and assembly of the evidence base for the KER. For evidence identification, include, for example, a description of the sources and dates of information consulted including expert knowledge, databases searched and associated search terms/strings. Include also a description of study screening criteria and methodology, study quality assessment considerations, the data extraction strategy and links to any repositories/databases of relevant references.Tabular summaries and links to relevant supporting documentation are encouraged, wherever possible. More help

Evidence Supporting this KER

Addresses the scientific evidence supporting KERs in an AOP setting the stage for overall assessment of the AOP. More help

There is convincing evidence that decreased T3 levels result in impaired posterior chamber inflation, but the underlying mechanisms are not completely understood. The quantitative understanding is currently very limited because T3 levels and posterior inflation are seldom measured in the same study. Therefore the evidence supporting this KER can be considered moderate.

Biological Plausibility

Addresses the biological rationale for a connection between KEupstream and KEdownstream. This field can also incorporate additional mechanistic details that help inform the relationship between KEs, this is useful when it is not practical/pragmatic to represent these details as separate KEs due to the difficulty or relative infrequency with which it is likely to be measured. More help

Thyroid hormones are known to be involved in development, especially in metamorphosis in amphibians and in embryonic-to-larval transition (Liu and Chan, 2002) and larval-to-juvenile transition (Brown et al., 1997) in fish. Inflation of the posterior chamber is part of the embryonic-to-larval transition in fish, together with structural and functional maturation of the mouth and gastrointestinal tract, and resorption of the yolk sac (Liu and Chan, 2002). Marelli et al. (2016) showed that thyroid hormone receptor alpha and beta are both expressed in swim bladder tissue of zebrafish at 5 days post fertilization, corresponding to the timing of posterior inflation. this time point has additionally been shown to coincide with increased T3 and T4 levels (Chang et al., 2012), suggesting that posterior inflation is under thyroid hormone regulation.

Empirical Evidence

Provides specific (citable) evidence that supports the idea of a change in the upstream KE (KEupstream) leading to, or being associated with, a subsequent change in the downstream KE (KEdownstream), assuming the perturbation of KEupstream is sufficient. More help

Maternal injection of T3, resulting in increased T3 concentrations in the eggs of striped bass (Morone saxatilis) lead to significant increases in both swim bladder inflation and survival (Brown et al., 1988).
Dong et al. (2013) and Thisse et al. (2003) showed localized expression of DIO1 and DIO2 in the swim bladder tissue of 96 and 120 hpf zebrafish larvae, suggesting that local activation of thyroid hormones (i.e. conversion of T4 to T3) is required in swim bladder tissue around that time period.
Marelli et al. (2016) used morpholinos to block translation of thryoid hormone receptor alpha or beta in zebrafish. They found that thyroid hormone receptor alpha and beta knockdowns failed to inflate the posterior chamber of the swim bladder by 120 hpf, indicating that the action of T3 is needed for proper inflation of the posterior chamber. High T3 doses partially rescued the negative impact in partially resistant mutants, further confirming the importance of T3 in this process.
Stinckens et al. (2018) showed that effects on posterior chamber inflation in zebrafish could be predicted based on in chemico DIO2 inhibition potential with only few false positives and false negatives. While T3 levels were not determined in this study, DIO2 inhibition is expected to result in decreased T3 levels.
Bagci et al. (2015) and Heijlen et al. (2013, 2014) reported that knockdown of DIO1+2 in zebrafish resulted in impairment of the inflation of the posterior chamber of the swim bladder. DIO1 and 2 knockdown is expected to result in reduced T3 levels. Indeed, Walpita et al. (2009, 2010) showed that T3 supplementation effectively rescued the effects of DIO1 and 2 knockdown, while T4 supplementation did not.
de Vrieze et al. (2014) found that knockdown of monocarboxylate transporter 8 (mct8) in zebrafish resulted in a dose-dependent impairment of posterior chamber inflation. Since this transporter is known to transport thyroid hormones across cell membranes, this supports the importance of thyroid hormones in regulating posterior chamber inflation.
Shi et al. (2019) found that exposure of adult zebrafish to 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonate (F-53B), an alternative to perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), decreased T3 levels in both male and female zebrafish. Additionally, F-53B was maternally transferred to the offspring. Decreased T3 levels together with impaired posterior chamber inflation was observed in the F1 offspring. Decreased T3 levels together with impaired posterior chamber inflation was observed in the F1 offspring. Although the assumed site of T3 decrease is in the swim bladder tissue itself, most fish early life stage studies only quantify whole-body T3 levels which does not allow for making the distinction between systemic and local T3 levels.
Wang et al. (2020) observed a decrease of whole-body T3 as well as impaired posterior chamber inflation in zebrafish exposed to perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluoropolyether carboxylic acids from fertilization until the age of 5 days. Exogenous T3 or T4 supplementation partly rescued PFECA-induced posterior swim bladder malformation, confirming the causal relationship between reduced T3 levels and reduced posterior chamber inflation.
Molla et al. (2019) showed that T3 supplementation increased posterior chamber diameter in zebrafish larvae. This confirms that T3 plays an important role in posterior swim bladder inflation.

Uncertainties and Inconsistencies

Addresses inconsistencies or uncertainties in the relationship including the identification of experimental details that may explain apparent deviations from the expected patterns of concordance. More help

The mechanism through which altered TH levels result in impaired posterior chamber inflation still needs to be elucidated. It is currently unclear which aspect of swim bladder development and inflation is affected by TH disruption. Based on the developmental stages of the posterior chamber, several hypotheses could explain effects on posterior chamber inflation due to disrupted TH levels. A first hypothesis includes effects on the budding of the posterior chamber inflation. Secondly, the effect on posterior chamber inflation could also be caused by disturbing the formation and growth of the three tissue layers of this organ. It has been reported that the Hedgehog signalling pathway plays an essential role in swim bladder development and is required for growth and differentiation of cells of the swim bladder. The Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway is required for the organization and growth of all three tissue layers (Yin et al., 2011, 2012, Winata 2009, Kress et al., 2009). Both signalling pathways have been related to THs in amphibian and rodent species (Kress et al., 2009; Plateroti et al., 2006; Stolow and Shi, 1995). Molla et al. (2019) showed that insulin-like growth factor (IGF‐1) plays a role in swim bladder inflation/maturation in zebrafish. Reinwald et al. (2021) showed that T3 and propylthiouracil treatment of zebrafish embryos altered expression of genes involved in muscle contraction and functioning in an opposing fashion. The authors suggested impaired muscle function as an additional key event between decreased T3 levels and reduced swim bladder inflation. Several other hypotheses include effects on the successful initial inflation of the posterior chamber, effects on lactic acid production that is required for the maintenance of the swim bladder volume, or effects on the production of surfactant that is crucial to maintain the surface tension necessary for swim bladder inflation.

Another uncertainty lies in the systemic versus local changes in T3 levels and the relative importance of the different T4 activating iodothyronine deiodinases (DIO1, DIO2) in regulating swim bladder inflation. Stinckens et al. (2018) showed that exposure of zebrafish embryos to seven strong DIO1 inhibitors (measured using in chemico enzyme inhibition assays), six out of seven compounds impaired posterior chamber inflation, but almost all of these compounds also inhibit DIO2. Tetrachlorobisphenol A (TCBPA), the only compound that inhibits DIO1 and not DIO2, had no effect on the posterior swim bladder. Exposure to strong DIO2 inhibitors on the other hand affected posterior chamber inflation and/or surface area in all cases. These results suggest that DIO2 enzymes may play a more important role in swim bladder inflation compared to DIO1 enzymes. In the ToxCast DIO2 inhibition single concentration assay, 304 out of 1820 chemicals were positive and 177 of these were also positive for DIO1 inhibition (viewed on 5/7/2022). This complicates the distinction between the relative contribution of DIO1 and DIO2 inhibition to reduced swim bladder inflation. It has been previously suggested that DIO2 is the major contributor to TH activation in developing zebrafish embryos (Darras et al., 2015; Walpita et al., 2010). It has been shown that a morpholino knockdown targeting DIO1 mRNA alone did not affect embryonic development in zebrafish, while knockdown of DIO2 delayed progression of otic vesicle length, head-trunk angle and pigmentation index (Houbrechts et al., 2016; Walpita et al., 2010, 2009). DIO1 inhibition may only become essential in hypothyroidal circumstances, for example when DIO2 is inhibited or in case of iodine deficiency, in zebrafish (Walpita et al., 2010) and mice (Galton et al., 2009; Schneider et al., 2006).

As reported by Bagci et al. (2015) and Heijlen et al. (2014), posterior chamber inflation was impaired in DIO3 knockdown zebrafish. Heijlen et al. (2014) additionally reported histologically abnormal tissue layers in the swim bladder of DIO3 knockdown zebrafish. DIO3 is a thyroid hormone inactivating enzyme, which would result in higher levels of T3. Wei et al. (2018) showed that exposure to bisphenol S in adult zebrafish decreased T4 levels and increased T3 levels, and these changes in thyroid hormone levels were transferred to the offspring, in which impaired swim bladder inflation was observed. This indicates that not only too low, but also too high T3 levels, impact posterior chamber inflation. The underlying mechanism is currently unknown.

In the study of Cavallin et al. (2017) fathead minnow embryos were exposed to IOP, a model iodothyronine deiodinase inhibitor that is assumed to inhibit all three deiodinase enzymes (DIO1,2,3). The authors observed increased whole-body T3 concentrations in 4 and 6 day old embryos, together with impaired posterior chamber inflation. Transcript levels of DIO1, 2 and 3 remained unaltered and thus offered no proof of a compensatory mechanism that could explain these results.

The earliest life stages of teleost fish rely on maternally transferred THs to regulate certain developmental processes until embryonic TH synthesis is active (Power et al., 2001). As a result, posterior swim bladder chamber inflation, which occurs early during development, appears to be less sensitive to inhibition of TH synthesis than to inhibition of the conversion of T4 to T3 (Stinckens et al., 2016, 2018; Nelson et al., 2016). There have however been a few reports of reduced posterior inflation upon inhibition of TH synthesis (Liu and Chan, 2002). It must however be noted that these observations could reflect delayed inflation due to a general delay in development rather than a direct effect on the swim bladder. Longer observations would have to clarify this.

Known modulating factors

This table captures specific information on the MF, its properties, how it affects the KER and respective references.1.) What is the modulating factor? Name the factor for which solid evidence exists that it influences this KER. Examples: age, sex, genotype, diet 2.) Details of this modulating factor. Specify which features of this MF are relevant for this KER. Examples: a specific age range or a specific biological age (defined by...); a specific gene mutation or variant, a specific nutrient (deficit or surplus); a sex-specific homone; a certain threshold value (e.g. serum levels of a chemical above...) 3.) Description of how this modulating factor affects this KER. Describe the provable modification of the KER (also quantitatively, if known). Examples: increase or decrease of the magnitude of effect (by a factor of...); change of the time-course of the effect (onset delay by...); alteration of the probability of the effect; increase or decrease of the sensitivity of the downstream effect (by a factor of...) 4.) Provision of supporting scientific evidence for an effect of this MF on this KER. Give a list of references. More help

Quantitative Understanding of the Linkage

Captures information that helps to define how much change in the upstream KE, and/or for how long, is needed to elicit a detectable and defined change in the downstream KE. More help

Studies measuring both T3 levels and posterior chamber inflation are scarce and a quantitative relationshiop has not been established yet.

Response-response Relationship

Provides sources of data that define the response-response relationships between the KEs. More help

Time-scale

Information regarding the approximate time-scale of the changes in KEdownstream relative to changes in KEupstream (i.e., do effects on KEdownstream lag those on KEupstream by seconds, minutes, hours, or days?). More help

Known Feedforward/Feedback loops influencing this KER

Define whether there are known positive or negative feedback mechanisms involved and what is understood about their time-course and homeostatic limits. More help

Domain of Applicability

A free-text section of the KER description that the developers can use to explain their rationale for the taxonomic, life stage, or sex applicability structured terms. More help

Taxonomic: Teleost fish can be divided in two groups according to swim bladder morphology: physoclistous (e.g., yellow perch, sea bass, striped bass, medaka) and physostomous (e.g., zebrafish and fathead minnow). Physostomous fish retain a duct between the digestive tract and the swim bladder during adulthood allowing them to gulp air at the surface to fill the swim bladder. In contrast, in physoclistous fish, once initial inflation by gulping atmospheric air at the water surface has occurred, the swim bladder is closed off from the digestive tract and swim bladder volume is regulated by gas secretion into the swim bladder (Woolley and Qin, 2010).

Much of the evidence for impaired posterior chamber of the swim bladder currently comes from work on zebrafish and fathead minnow (Stinckens et al., 2018; Cavallin et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2020). Increasing evidence is becoming available on defects of swim bladder inflation in medaka (Oryzias latipes), a species with only one swim bladder chamber (Gonzalez-Doncel et al., 2003; Dong et al., 2016; Kupsco et al., 2016; Mu et al., 2017; Pandelides et al., 2021). Exposure to T3, methimazole, heptafluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) and tris[1,3-dichloro-2-propyl] phosphate (TDCPP) inhibited inflation of the swim bladder in female medaka. Interestingly, for those females that developed a swim bladder, exposure to methimazole and all halogenated chemicals with the exception of PFBA, resulted in larger swim bladders (Godfrey et al., 2019). Horie et al. (2022) elucidated the timing of swim bladder inflation in medaka and compared effects on the swim bladder after exposure of zebrafish and medaka to PFBA and TDCPP. This KER is plausibly applicable across fish species with swim bladders, both physostomous and physoclistous.

Life stage: This KER is only applicable to early embryonic development, which is the period where the posterior swim bladder chamber inflates. The relationship between reduced T3 levels and reduced posterior chamber inflation is not applicable to older larvae that successfully inflated the posterior chamber but show impaired anterior chamber inflation after chronic exposure to low concentrations of thyroid hormone system disruptors. In 32 day old zebrafish exposed to methimazole, propylthiouracil, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole or iopaonic acid (Stinckens et al., 2016, 2020) as well as in 14-21 day old fathead minnows exposed to iopaonic acid (Cavallin et al., 2017), a clear inverse relationship was found. With decreasing whole-body T3 concentrations, posterior chamber volume increased, suggesting a possible compensatory mechanism for the observed decrease in anterior chamber volume. As a result, the sum of both chamber surfaces, reflecting the total amount of gas, was equal to controls for most treatments (Stinckens et al., 2016; Stinckens et al., 2020).

Sex: This KER is plausibly applicable to both sexes. Sex differences are not often investigated in tests using early life stages of fish. In medaka, sex can be morphologically distinguished as soon as 10 days post fertilization. Females appear more susceptible to thyroid‐induced swim bladder dysfunction compared with males (Godfrey et al., 2019). In zebrafish and fathead minnow, it is currently unclear whether sex-related differences are important in determining the magnitude of the changes in this KER. Zebrafish are undifferentiated gonochorists since both sexes initially develop an immature ovary (Maack and Segner, 2003). Immature ovary development progresses until approximately the onset of the third week. Later, in female fish immature ovaries continue to develop further, while male fish undergo transformation of ovaries into testes. Final transformation into testes varies among male individuals, however finishes usually around 6 weeks post fertilization. Since the posterior chamber inflates around 5 days post fertilization in zebrafish, when sex differentiation has not started yet, sex differences are expected to play a minor role. Fathead minnow gonad differentiation also occurs during larval development. Fathead minnows utilize a XY sex determination strategy and markers can be used to genotype sex in life stages where the sex is not yet clearly defined morphologically (Olmstead et al., 2011). Ovarian differentiation starts at 10 dph followed by rapid development (Van Aerle et al., 2004). At 25 dph germ cells of all stages up to the primary oocytes stage were present and at 120 dph, vitellogenic oocytes were present. The germ cells (spermatogonia) of the developing testes only entered meiosis around 90–120 dph. Mature testes with spermatozoa are present around 150 dph. Since the posterior chamber inflates around 6 days post fertilization (1 dph) in fathead minnows, sex differences are expected to play a minor role in this KER.

References

List of the literature that was cited for this KER description. More help

Bagci, E., Heijlen, M., Vergauwen, L., Hagenaars, A., Houbrechts, A.M., Esguerra, C.V., Blust, R., Darras, V.M., Knapen, D., 2015. Deiodinase knockdown during early zebrafish development affects growth, development, energy metabolism, motility and phototransduction. PLOS One 10, e0123285.

Brown, C.L., Doroshov, S.I., Nunez, J.M., Hadley, C., Vaneenennaam, J., Nishioka, R.S., Bern, H.A., 1988. Maternal triiodothyronine injections cause increases in swimbladder inflation and survival rates in larval striped bass, morone-saxatilis. Journal of Experimental Zoology 248, 168-176.

Brown, D.D., 1997. The role of thyroid hormone in zebrafish and axolotl development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94, 13011-13016.

Cavallin, J.E., Ankley, G.T., Blackwell, B.R., Blanksma, C.A., Fay, K.A., Jensen, K.M., Kahl, M.D., Knapen, D., Kosian, P.A., Poole, S.T., Randolph, E.C., Schroeder, A.L., Vergauwen, L., Villeneuve, D.L., 2017. Impaired swim bladder inflation in early life stage fathead minnows exposed to a deiodinase inhibitor, iopanoic acid. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 36, 2942-2952.

Chang, J., Wang, M., Gui, W., Zhao, Y., Yu, L., Zhu, G., 2012. Changes in Thyroid Hormone Levels during Zebrafish Development. Zoological Science 29, 181-184.

Darras, V.M., Houbrechts, A.M., Van Herck, S.L.J., 2015. Intracellular thyroid hormone metabolism as a local regulator of nuclear thyroid hormone receptor-mediated impact on vertebrate development. Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta-Gene Regulatory Mechanisms 1849, 130-141.

de Vrieze, E., van de Wiel, S.M.W., Zethof, J., Flik, G., Klaren, P.H.M., Arjona, F.J., 2014. Knockdown of Monocarboxylate Transporter 8 (mct8) Disturbs Brain Development and Locomotion in Zebrafish. Endocrinology 155, 2320-2330.

Dong, W., Macaulay, L.J., Kwok, K.W., Hinton, D.E., Stapleton, H.M., 2013. Using whole mount in situ hybridization to examine thyroid hormone deiodinase expression in embryonic and larval zebrafish: a tool for examining OH-BDE toxicity to early life stages. Aquat Toxicol 132-133, 190-199.

Dong W, Liu J, Wei LX, Yang JF, Chernick M, Hinton DE. 2016. Developmental toxicity from exposure to various forms of mercury compounds in medaka fish (oryzias latipes) embryos. Peerj. 4.

Galton, V.A., Schneider, M.J., Clark, A.S., St Germain, D.L., 2009. Life without thyroxine to 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine conversion: studies in mice devoid of the 5'-deiodinases. Endocrinology 150, 2957-2963.

Godfrey A, Hooser B, Abdelmoneim A, Sepulveda MS. 2019. Sex-specific endocrine-disrupting effects of three halogenated chemicals in japanese medaka. Journal of Applied Toxicology. 39(8):1215-1223.

Gonzalez-Doncel M, de la Pena E, Barrueco C, Hinton DE. 2003. Stage sensitivity of medaka (oryzias latipes) eggs and embryos to permethrin. Aquatic Toxicology. 62(3):255-268.

Horie, Y., Nomura, M., Okamoto, K., Takahashi, C., Sato, T., Miyagawa, S., Okamura, H., Iguchi, T., 2022. Effect of thyroid hormone-disrupting chemicals on swim bladder inflation and thyroid hormone-related gene expression in Japanese medaka and zebrafish. Journal of Applied Toxicology. DOI: 10.1002/jat.4302

Heijlen, M., Houbrechts, A., Bagci, E., Van Herck, S., Kersseboom, S., Esguerra, C., Blust, R., Visser, T., Knapen, D., Darras, V., 2014. Knockdown of type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase severely perturbs both embryonic and early larval development in zebrafish. Endocrinology 155, 1547-1559.

Heijlen, M., Houbrechts, A.M., Darras, V.M., 2013. Zebrafish as a model to study peripheral thyroid hormone metabolism in vertebrate development. Gen.Comp. Endocrinol. 188, 289–296, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2013.04.004.

Kress, E., Rezza, A., Nadjar, J., Samarut, J., Plateroti, M., 2009. The frizzled-related sFRP2 gene is a target of thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 and activates beta-catenin signaling in mouse intestine. J Biol Chem 284, 1234-1241.

Kupsco A, Schlenk D. 2016. Stage susceptibility of japanese medaka (oryzias latipes) to selenomethionine and hypersaline developmental toxicity. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 35(5):1247-1256.

Liu, Y.W., Chan, W.K., 2002. Thyroid hormones are important for embryonic to larval transitory phase in zebrafish. Differentiation 70, 36-45.

Maack, G., Segner, H., 2003. Morphological development of the gonads in zebrafish. Journal of Fish Biology 62, 895-906.

Marelli, F., Carra, S., Agostini, M., Cotelli, F., Peeters, R., Chatterjee, K., Persani, L., 2016. Patterns of thyroid hormone receptor expression in zebrafish and generation of a novel model of resistance to thyroid hormone action. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 424, 102-117.

Molla, M.H.R., Hasan, M.T., Jang, W.J., Diaz, C.D.S., Appenteng, P., Marufchoni, H., Jahan, B., Brown, C.L., 2019. Thyroid hormone-induced swim bladder and eye maturation are transduced by IGF-1 in zebrafish embryos. Aquaculture Research 50, 3462-3470.

Mu, J.L., Chernick, M., Dong, W., Di Giulio, R.T., Hinton, D.E., 2017. Early life co-exposures to a real-world PAH mixture and hypoxia result in later life and next generation consequences in medaka (Oryzias latipes). Aquatic Toxicology 190, 162-173.

Nagabhushana A, Mishra RK. 2016. Finding clues to the riddle of sex determination in zebrafish. Journal of Biosciences. 41(1):145- 155.

Nelson, K., Schroeder, A., Ankley, G., Blackwell, B., Blanksma, C., Degitz, S., Flynn, K., Jensen, K., Johnson, R., Kahl, M., Knapen, D., Kosian, P., Milsk, R., Randolph, E., Saari, T., Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Villeneuve, D., 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2-mercaptobenzothiazole part I: Fathead minnow. Aquatic Toxicology 173, 192-203.

Olmstead AW, Villeneuve DL, Ankley GT, Cavallin JE, Lindberg-Livingston A, Wehmas LC, Degitz SJ. 2011. A method for the determination of genetic sex in the fathead minnow, pimephales promelas, to support testing of endocrine-active chemicals. Environmental Science & Technology. 45(7):3090-3095.

Pandelides Z, Ussery EJ, Overturf MD, Guchardi J, Holdway DA. 2021. Inhibition of swim bladder inflation in japanese medaka (oryzias latipes) embryos following exposure to select pharmaceuticals alone and in combination. Aquatic Toxicology. 234.

Plateroti, M., Kress, E., Mori, J.I., Samarut, J., 2006. Thyroid hormone receptor alpha1 directly controls transcription of the beta- catenin gene in intestinal epithelial cells. Mol Cell Biol 26, 3204-3214.

Reinwald H, Konig A, Ayobahan SU, Alvincz J, Sipos L, Gockener B, Bohle G, Shomroni O, Hollert H, Salinas G et al. 2021. Toxicogenomic fin(ger)prints for thyroid disruption aop refinement and biomarker identification in zebrafish embryos. Science of the Total Environment. 760.

Schneider, M.J., Fiering, S.N., Thai, B., Wu, S.Y., St Germain, E., Parlow, A.F., St Germain, D.L., Galton, V.A., 2006. Targeted disruption of the type 1 selenodeiodinase gene (Dio1) results in marked changes in thyroid hormone economy in mice. Endocrinology 147, 580-589.

Shi, G., Wang, J., Guoa, H., Shenga, N., Cui, Q., Pan, Y., Guob, Y., Sun, Y., Dai, J., 2019. Parental exposure to 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonate (F-53B) induced transgenerational thyroid hormone disruption in zebrafish. Science of the Total Environment 665, 855-863.

Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Ankley, G.T., Blust, R., Darras, V.M., Villeneuve, D.L., Witters, H., Volz, D.C., Knapen, D., 2018. An AOP-based alternative testing strategy to predict the impact of thyroid hormone disruption on swim bladder inflation in zebrafish. Aquatic Toxicology 200, 1-12.

Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Blackwell, B.R., Anldey, G.T., Villeneuve, D.L., Knapen, D., 2020. Effect of Thyroperoxidase and Deiodinase Inhibition on Anterior Swim Bladder Inflation in the Zebrafish. Environmental Science & Technology 54, 6213-6223.

Stinckens, E., Vergauwen, L., Schroeder, A., Maho, W., Blackwell, B., Witters, H., Blust, R., Ankley, G., Covaci, A., Villeneuve, D., Knapen, D., 2016. Impaired anterior swim bladder inflation following exposure to the thyroid peroxidase inhibitor 2- mercaptobenzothiazole part II: Zebrafish. Aquatic Toxicology 173, 204-217.

Stolow, M.A., Shi, Y.B., 1995. Xenopus sonic hedgehog as a potential morphogen during embryogenesis and thyroid hormone-dependent metamorphosis. Nucleic Acids Research 23, 2555-2562.

Thisse, C., Degrave, A., Kryukov, G.V., Gladyshev, V.N., Obrecht-Pflumio, S., Krol, A., Thisse, B., Lescure, A., 2003. Spatial and temporal expression patterns of selenoprotein genes during embryogenesis in zebrafish. Gene Expr Patterns 3, 525-532.

van Aerle R, Runnalls TJ, Tyler CR. 2004. Ontogeny of gonadal sex development relative to growth in fathead minnow. Journal of Fish Biology. 64(2):355-369.

Walpita, C.N., Crawford, A.D., Darras, V.M., 2010. Combined antisense knockdown of type 1 and type 2 iodothyronine deiodinases disrupts embryonic development in zebrafish (Danio rerio). General and Comparative Endocrinology 166, 134-141.

Walpita, C.N., Crawford, A.D., Janssens, E.D., Van der Geyten, S., Darras, V.M., 2009. Type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase is essential for thyroid hormone-dependent embryonic development and pigmentation in zebrafish. Endocrinology 150, 530-539.

Wang, J.X., Shi, G.H., Yao, J.Z., Sheng, N., Cui, R.N., Su, Z.B., Guo, Y., Dai, J.Y., 2020. Perfluoropolyether carboxylic acids (novel alternatives to PFOA) impair zebrafish posterior swim bladder development via thyroid hormone disruption. Environment International 134.

Wei, P.H., Zhao, F., Zhang, X.N., Liu, W.M., Jiang, G.B., Wang, H.F., Ru, S.G., 2018. Transgenerational thyroid endocrine disruption induced by bisphenol S affects the early development of zebrafish offspring. Environmental Pollution 243, 800-808.

Winata, C.L., Korzh, S., Kondrychyn, I., Zheng, W., Korzh, V., Gong, Z., 2009. Development of zebrafish swimbladder: The requirement of Hedgehog signaling in specification and organization of the three tissue layers. Developmental Biology 331, 222- 236.

Woolley LD, Qin JG. 2010. Swimbladder inflation and its implication to the culture of marine finfish larvae. Reviews in Aquaculture. 2(4):181-190.

Yin, A., Korzh, S., Winata, C.L., Korzh, V., Gong, Z., 2011. Wnt signaling is required for early development of zebrafish swimbladder. PLoS One 6, e18431.

Yin, A., Korzh, V., Gong, Z., 2012. Perturbation of zebrafish swimbladder development by enhancing Wnt signaling in Wif1 morphants. Biochim Biophys Acta 1823, 236-244.