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Event: 445

Key Event Title

A descriptive phrase which defines a discrete biological change that can be measured. More help

Respiratory distress/arrest

Short name
The KE short name should be a reasonable abbreviation of the KE title and is used in labelling this object throughout the AOP-Wiki. More help
Respiratory distress/arrest
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Biological Context

Structured terms, selected from a drop-down menu, are used to identify the level of biological organization for each KE. More help
Level of Biological Organization
Organ

Organ term

The location/biological environment in which the event takes place.The biological context describes the location/biological environment in which the event takes place.  For molecular/cellular events this would include the cellular context (if known), organ context, and species/life stage/sex for which the event is relevant. For tissue/organ events cellular context is not applicable.  For individual/population events, the organ context is not applicable.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help
Organ term
respiration organ

Key Event Components

The KE, as defined by a set structured ontology terms consisting of a biological process, object, and action with each term originating from one of 14 biological ontologies (Ives, et al., 2017; https://aopwiki.org/info_pages/2/info_linked_pages/7#List). Biological process describes dynamics of the underlying biological system (e.g., receptor signalling).Biological process describes dynamics of the underlying biological system (e.g., receptor signaling).  The biological object is the subject of the perturbation (e.g., a specific biological receptor that is activated or inhibited). Action represents the direction of perturbation of this system (generally increased or decreased; e.g., ‘decreased’ in the case of a receptor that is inhibited to indicate a decrease in the signaling by that receptor).  Note that when editing Event Components, clicking an existing Event Component from the Suggestions menu will autopopulate these fields, along with their source ID and description.  To clear any fields before submitting the event component, use the 'Clear process,' 'Clear object,' or 'Clear action' buttons.  If a desired term does not exist, a new term request may be made via Term Requests.  Event components may not be edited; to edit an event component, remove the existing event component and create a new one using the terms that you wish to add.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help
Process Object Action
respiratory distress increased

Key Event Overview

AOPs Including This Key Event

All of the AOPs that are linked to this KE will automatically be listed in this subsection. This table can be particularly useful for derivation of AOP networks including the KE.Clicking on the name of the AOP will bring you to the individual page for that AOP. More help
AOP Name Role of event in AOP Point of Contact Author Status OECD Status
AChE inhibition - acute mortality KeyEvent Dan Villeneuve (send email) Under Development: Contributions and Comments Welcome Under Development
sodium channel inhibition 3 KeyEvent Kellie Fay (send email) Under Development: Contributions and Comments Welcome

Taxonomic Applicability

Latin or common names of a species or broader taxonomic grouping (e.g., class, order, family) that help to define the biological applicability domain of the KE.In many cases, individual species identified in these structured fields will be those for which the strongest evidence used in constructing the AOP was available in relation to this KE. More help

Life Stages

An indication of the the relevant life stage(s) for this KE. More help

Sex Applicability

An indication of the the relevant sex for this KE. More help

Key Event Description

A description of the biological state being observed or measured, the biological compartment in which it is measured, and its general role in the biology should be provided. More help
  • Acute respiratory failure describes the inability of the lungs to exchange gas effectively and to maintain a normal acid-base balance as a result of failure of the respiratory system anywhere from the medullary respiratory controllers to the chest bellows and the lungs, including the upper airways (Chokroverty 2011 in Carey 2013). Respiratory failure is a multi-factorial process; including a direct depressant effect on the respiratory center in the brainstem, constriction of and increased airway secretions, and paralysis of respiratory muscles ((Bartholomew et al., 1985; Rickett et al., 1986) in Carey 2013). 

  • Respiratory failure can occur from local muscarinic effects (bronchoconstriction, bronchorrhea, pulmonary edema), central depression of the respiratory center, or flaccid paralysis through depolarization of respiratory muscles (Hulse 2014).

  • Other pulmonary complications commonly seen during acute cholinergic syndrome include local airway effects, alveolar fluid and bronchorrhea, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), central nervous system effects, and neuromuscular junction effects (Hulse 2014).

  • Respiratory distress is characterized symptomatically through gasping and difficulty breathing.

How It Is Measured or Detected

A description of the type(s) of measurements that can be employed to evaluate the KE and the relative level of scientific confidence in those measurements.These can range from citation of specific validated test guidelines, citation of specific methods published in the peer reviewed literature, or outlines of a general protocol or approach (e.g., a protein may be measured by ELISA). Do not provide detailed protocols. More help
  • In humans, spirometry is used to measure lung function. The ratio of volume of air expired in one second (FEV1) to forced vital capacity (FVC) should be close to 80%. A decreased FEV 1/FVC is indicative of impaired ventilation. Other common pulmonary function tests include airway resistance and measurements of maximal flow rate, diffusion capacity, and oxygen and carbon dioxide content of arterial and venous blood. Blood gas analysis measures the arterial partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide to determine gas exchange (Leikauf). 

  • In animals, common pulmonary function measurements include tests of lung compliance and airway resistance. The lung is deflated and then inflated with incremental volumes and pressure is recorded; the lung is then deflated with incremental volumes and again recorded. Compliance is calculated as the slope of the volume-pressure curve, and indicates the properties of the lung parenchyma. Airway resistance, a measure of bronchoconstriction, can be measured by plethysmography (Leikauf).

  • Measurements of cardio-respiratory function in fish exposed to aqueous solutions of toxic chemicals may be conducted in respirometer metabolism chambers. Anesthetized fish are immobilized by spinal transection, and inserted with a urine catheter, dorsal aortic cannula, electrodes, and attachment of an oral membrane. Predose measurements are taken before chemical exposure. Fish are monitored for 24 to 48 hours, and measurements taken every 2 hours. Ventilation rate (VR) and cough response (CR) are determined using freestanding stainless steel electrodes. Ventilation volume (V), oxygen consumption (VO), and oxygen utilization (U) may be obtained using dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in inspired and expired water from the chambers (McKim 1987).

  • In humans, bronchoconstriction is characterized by coughing, wheezing, rapid shallow breathing, a sensation of chest tightness, substernal pain, and dyspnea. Airway hyperreactivity, a lowered threshold dose of a toxicant needed to induce bronchoconstriction,  is tested by measuring airway resistance following inhalation of increasing doses of a metacholine aerosol (Leikauf).

  • In animals, pulmonary edema is measured by lung wet weight: dry weight ratio. Lung water content, expressed as the wet (undessicated) weight of the whole lung or that of a single lobe, is normalized to the weight of the lung or the animal after dessication. Pulmonary edema can also be detected by pulmonary lavage, in which the fluid lining the pulmonary epithelium is recovered and analyzed for signs of inflammation or damage (Leikauf).

  • In animals, inhalation studies are used to expose an organism within a chamber to a toxicant at a concentration for a period of time (Leikauf).

  • Morphological techniques include gross and histological examination of the nasal passages, larynx, bronchi, and parenchyma for inflammation or structural damage (Leikauf).

  • In vitro tests such as isolated perfused lung, airway microdissection, and lung tissue culture (Leikauf).

Domain of Applicability

A description of the scientific basis for the indicated domains of applicability and the WoE calls (if provided).  More help
  • This key event is thought to be applicable to terrestrial, air-breathing organisms. The relevance of this event to fish or other animals without lungs is questionable.

  • Central respiratory depression is the predominant mechanism causing death in humans; in other animals, the predominant mechanism varies by species. Nonhuman primates dosed with lethal sarin and soman vapor experienced apnea, hypoxia, and phrenic nerve signal failure within 5 minutes. Diaphragmatic NMJ function was 70 to 80% of normal, indicating the predominance of central effects at the time of arrest (Hulse 2014).

  • Monkeys have a respiratory system that most closely resembles that of humans. Rats and mice are commonly used, but display differences in respiratory anatomy and function that may complicate extrapolation to humans (Leikauf).

  • A study of respiratory failure in multiple species - mouse, rat, guinea-pig, rabbit, cat, dog, monkey, sheep, and goat - exposed to anticholinergic drugs, found that impaired respiration in animals treated with AChE inhibiting drugs with specific effects dependent on species, drug used, and administered dose (De Candole, 1953).

References

List of the literature that was cited for this KE description. More help
  • Carey, J.L., Dunn, C., Gaspari, R.J. 2013. Central respiratory failure during acute organophosphate poisoning. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology. 189(2), 403-410.

  • Chokrovetry, S. 2011. Chapter 64- Sleep and breathing in neuromuscular disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 99, 1087-1108.

  • De Candole, C.A., Douglas, W.W., Evans, C.L., Holmes, R., Spencer, K.E., Torrance, R.W., Wilson, K.M. 1953. The failure of respiration in death by anticholinesterase poisoning. Br J Pharmacol Chemother. 8(4):466-75.

  • Leikauf, G.D. Toxic responses of the Respiratory System.  In Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons. 9th ed. pp 793-837.

  • Hulse, E.J., Davies, J.O., John Simpson, A., Sciuto, A.M., Eddleston, M. 2013. Respiratory Complications of Organophosphorus Nerve Agent and Insecticide Poisoning. Implications for Respiratory and Critical Care. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 190(12).

  • McKim, J.M., Schmieder, P.K., Carlson, R.W., Hunt, E.P. (1987). Use of respiratory-cardiovascular responses of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) in identifying acute toxicity syndromes in fish: Part 1. Pentachlorophenol, 2,4-dinitrophenol, tricaine methanesulfonate and 1-octanol. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Vol. 6, 295-312.