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Event: 1492

Key Event Title

A descriptive phrase which defines a discrete biological change that can be measured. More help

Tissue resident cell activation

Short name
The KE short name should be a reasonable abbreviation of the KE title and is used in labelling this object throughout the AOP-Wiki. More help
Tissue resident cell activation
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Biological Context

Structured terms, selected from a drop-down menu, are used to identify the level of biological organization for each KE. More help
Level of Biological Organization
Cellular

Cell term

The location/biological environment in which the event takes place.The biological context describes the location/biological environment in which the event takes place.  For molecular/cellular events this would include the cellular context (if known), organ context, and species/life stage/sex for which the event is relevant. For tissue/organ events cellular context is not applicable.  For individual/population events, the organ context is not applicable.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help

Organ term

The location/biological environment in which the event takes place.The biological context describes the location/biological environment in which the event takes place.  For molecular/cellular events this would include the cellular context (if known), organ context, and species/life stage/sex for which the event is relevant. For tissue/organ events cellular context is not applicable.  For individual/population events, the organ context is not applicable.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help

Key Event Components

The KE, as defined by a set structured ontology terms consisting of a biological process, object, and action with each term originating from one of 14 biological ontologies (Ives, et al., 2017; https://aopwiki.org/info_pages/2/info_linked_pages/7#List). Biological process describes dynamics of the underlying biological system (e.g., receptor signalling).Biological process describes dynamics of the underlying biological system (e.g., receptor signaling).  The biological object is the subject of the perturbation (e.g., a specific biological receptor that is activated or inhibited). Action represents the direction of perturbation of this system (generally increased or decreased; e.g., ‘decreased’ in the case of a receptor that is inhibited to indicate a decrease in the signaling by that receptor).  Note that when editing Event Components, clicking an existing Event Component from the Suggestions menu will autopopulate these fields, along with their source ID and description.  To clear any fields before submitting the event component, use the 'Clear process,' 'Clear object,' or 'Clear action' buttons.  If a desired term does not exist, a new term request may be made via Term Requests.  Event components may not be edited; to edit an event component, remove the existing event component and create a new one using the terms that you wish to add.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help
Process Object Action
cell activation involved in immune response increased

Key Event Overview

AOPs Including This Key Event

All of the AOPs that are linked to this KE will automatically be listed in this subsection. This table can be particularly useful for derivation of AOP networks including the KE.Clicking on the name of the AOP will bring you to the individual page for that AOP. More help
AOP Name Role of event in AOP Point of Contact Author Status OECD Status
Oxidative stress and Developmental impairment in learning and memory KeyEvent Marie-Gabrielle Zurich (send email) Open for citation & comment WPHA/WNT Endorsed
Protein Alkylation to Liver Fibrosis KeyEvent Brigitte Landesmann (send email) Open for citation & comment WPHA/WNT Endorsed
Increased DNA damage leading to breast cancer KeyEvent Jessica Helm (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite Under Development
RONS leading to breast cancer KeyEvent Jessica Helm (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite Under Development
Deposition of Energy Leading to Learning and Memory Impairment KeyEvent Vinita Chauhan (send email) Open for citation & comment

Taxonomic Applicability

Latin or common names of a species or broader taxonomic grouping (e.g., class, order, family) that help to define the biological applicability domain of the KE.In many cases, individual species identified in these structured fields will be those for which the strongest evidence used in constructing the AOP was available in relation to this KE. More help
Term Scientific Term Evidence Link
human Homo sapiens NCBI
Macaca fascicularis Macaca fascicularis NCBI
rat Rattus norvegicus NCBI
mouse Mus musculus NCBI
zebrafish Danio rerio NCBI

Life Stages

An indication of the the relevant life stage(s) for this KE. More help
Life stage Evidence
All life stages

Sex Applicability

An indication of the the relevant sex for this KE. More help

Key Event Description

A description of the biological state being observed or measured, the biological compartment in which it is measured, and its general role in the biology should be provided. More help

Tissue resident cell activation is considered as a hallmark of inflammation irrespective of the tissue type. Strategically placed cells within tissues respond to noxious stimuli, thus regulating the recruitment of neutrophil and the initiation and resolution of inflammation (Kim and Luster, 2015).  Examples for these cells are resident immune cells, parenchymal cells, vascular cells, stromal cells, or smooth muscle cells.  These cells may be specific for a certain tissue, but they have a common tissue-independent role.

Under healthy conditions there is a homeostatic state, characterized as a generally quiescent cellular milieu. Various danger signals or alarmins that are involved in induction of inflammation like pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecules (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs) activate these resident cells in affected tissues.  

Examples of well-characterized DAMPs (danger signals or alarmins) (Saïd-Sadier  and Ojcius, 2012)

DAMPs

Receptors

Outcome of receptor ligation

Extracellular nucleotides (ATP, ADP, adenosine)

PI, P2X and P2Y receptors (ATP, ADP); Al, A2A, A2B and A3 receptors (adenosine)

Dendritic cell (DC) maturation, chemotaxis, secretion of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18), inflammation

Extracellular heat shock proteins

CD14, CD91, scavenger receptors, TLR4, TLR2, CD40

DC maturation, cytokine induction, DC, migration to lymph nodes

Extracellular HMGB1

RAGE, TLR2, TLR4

Chemotaxis, cytokine induction, DC activation, neutrophil recruitment, inflammation, activation of immune cells

Uric acid crystals

CD14, TLR2, TLR4

DC activation, cytokine induction, neutrophil recruitment, gout induction

Oxidative stress

Intracellular redox-sensitive proteins

Cell death, release of endogenous DAMPs, inflammation

Laminin

Integrins

Neutrophil recruitment, chemotaxis

S100 proteins or calgranulins

RAGE

Neutrophil recruitment, chemotaxis, cytokine secretion, apoptosis

Hyaluronan

TLR2, TLR4, CD44

DC maturation, cytokine production, adjuvant activity

Activation refers to a phenotypic modification of the resident cells that includes alterations in their secretions, activation of biosynthetic pathways, production of pro-inflammatory proteins and lipids, and morphological changes. While these represent a pleiotropic range of responses that can vary with the tissue, there are a number of common markers or signs of activation that are measurable.

Examples of Common markers are

  • CD11b
  • Iba1
  • GFAP
  • CD68
  • CD86
  • Mac-1
  • NF-kB
  • AP-1
  • Jnk
  • P38/mapk

These described commonalities allow the use of this KE as a hub KE in the AOP network. However, despite the similarities in the inflammatory process, the type of reactive cells and the molecules triggering their reactivity may be tissue-specific. Therefore, for practical reasons, a tissue specific description of the reactive cells and of the triggering factors is necessary in order to specify in a tissue-specific manner, which cell should be considered and what should be measured.

BRAIN

The most easily detectable feature of brain inflammation or neuroinflammation is activation of microglial cells and astrocytes. It is evidenced by changes in shape, increased expression of certain antigens, and accumulation and proliferation of the glial cells in affected regions (Aschner, 1998; Graeber & Streit, 1990; Monnet-Tschudi et al, 2007; Streit et al, 1999; Kraft and Harry, 2011; Claycomb et al., 2013). Upon stimulation by cytokines, chemokines or inflammogens (e.g. from pathogens or from damaged neurons), both glial cell types activate inflammatory signaling pathways, which result in increased expression and/or release of inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, eicosanoids, and metalloproteinases (Dong & Benveniste, 2001) (cf KE: pro-inflammatory mediators, increased), as well as in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrogen species (RNS) (Brown & Bal-Price, 2003). Different types of activation states are possible for microglia and astrocytes, resulting in pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory signaling, and other cellular functions (such as phagocytosis) (Streit et al., 1999; Nakajima and Kohsaka, 2004). Therefore, neuroinflammation can have both neuroprotective/neuroreparative and neurodegenerative consequences (Carson et al., 2006; Monnet-Tschudi et al, 2007; Aguzzi et al., 2013 ; Glass et al., 2010). Under normal physiological conditions, microglial cells survey the nervous system for neuronal integrity (Nimmerjahn et al, 2005) and for invading pathogens (Aloisi, 2001; Kreutzberg, 1995; Kreutzberg, 1996; Rivest, 2009). They are the first type of cell activated (first line of defense), and can subsequently induce astrocyte activation (Falsig, 2008). Two distinct states of microglial activation have been described (Gordon, 2003; Kigerl et al, 2009; Maresz et al, 2008; Mosser & Edwards, 2008; Perego et al; Ponomarev et al, 2005): The M1 state is classically triggered by interferon-gamma and/or other pro-inflammatory cytokines, and this state is characterized by increased expression of integrin alpha M (Itgam) and CD86, as well as the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, IL-1beta, IL-6), and it is mostly associated with neurodegeneration. The M2 state is triggered by IL-4 and IL-13 (Maresz et al, 2008; Perego et al, 2011; Ponomarev et al, 2007) and induces the expression of mannose receptor 1 (MRC1), arginase1 (Arg 1) and Ym1/2; it is involved in repair processes. The activation of astrocytes by microglia-derived cytokines or TLR agonists resembles the microglial M1 state (Falsig 2006). Although classification of the M1/M2 polarization of microglial cells may be considered as a simplification of authentic microglial reaction states (Ransohoff, 2016), a similar polarization of reactive astrocytes has been described recently Liddlelow et al., 2017): Interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1a), TNF and subcomponent q (C1q) released by activated microglial cells induce A1-reactive astrocytes, which lose the ability to promote neuronal survival, outgrowth, synaptogenesis and phagocytosis and induce the death of neurons and oligodendrocytes.

Regulatory examples using the KE

Measurement of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in brain tissue, whose increase is a marker of astrocyte reactivity, is required by the US EPA in rodent toxicity studies for fuel additives (40 CFR 79.67). It has been used on rare occasions for other toxicant evaluations.

LIVER:

Kupffer cells (KCs) are a specialized population of macrophages that reside in the liver; they were first described by Carl Wilhelm von Kupffer (1829–1902) [Haubrich 2004]. KCs constitute 80%-90% of the tissue macrophages in the reticuloendothelial system and account for approximately 15% of the total liver cell population [Bouwens et al., 1986].   They play an important role in normal physiology and homeostasis as well as participating in the acute and chronic responses of the liver to toxic compounds. Activation of KCs results in the release of an array of inflammatory mediators, growth factors, and reactive oxygen species. This activation appears to modulate acute hepatocyte injury as well as chronic liver responses including hepatic cancer. Understanding the role KCs play in these diverse responses is key to understanding mechanisms of liver injury [Roberts et al.,2007].  Besides the release of inflammatory mediators including cytokines, chemokines, lysosomal and proteolytic enzymes KCs are a main source of TGF-β1 (transforming growth factor-beta 1, the most potent profibrogenic cytokine). In addition latent TGF-β1 can be activated by KC-secreted matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9)[Winwood and Arthur, 1993; Luckey and Peeterson, 2001] through the release of biologically active substances that promote the pathogenic process. Activated KCs also release ROS like superoxide generated by NOX (NADPH oxidase), thus contributing to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress also activates a variety of transcription factors like NF-κB, PPAR-γ leading to an increased gene expression for the production of growth factors, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. KCs express TNF-α (Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha), IL-1 (Interleukin-1) and MCP-1 (monocyte-chemoattractant protein-1), all being mitogens and chemoattractants for hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and induce the expression of PDGF receptors on HSCs which enhances cell proliferation. Expressed TNF-α, TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), and FasL (Fas Ligand) are not only pro-inflammatory active but also capable of inducing death receptor-mediated apoptosis in hepatocytes [Guo and Friedman, 2007; Friedman 2002; Roberts et al., 2007]. Under conditions of oxidative stress macrophages are further activated which leads to a more enhanced inflammatory response that again further activates KCs though cytokines (Interferon gamma (IFNγ), granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), TNF-α), bacterial lipopolysaccharides, extracellular matrix proteins, and other chemical mediators [Kolios et al., 2006; Kershenobich Stalnikowitz and Weissbrod 2003].

Besides KCs, the resident hepatic macrophages, infiltrating bone marrow-derived macrophages, originating from circulating monocytes are recruited to the injured liver via chemokine signals. KCs appear essential for sensing tissue injury and initiating inflammatory responses, while infiltrating Ly-6C+ monocyte-derived macrophages are linked to chronic inflammation and fibrogenesis. The profibrotic functions of KCs (HSC activation via paracrine mechanisms) during chronic hepatic injury remain functionally relevant, even if the infiltration of additional inflammatory monocytes is blocked via pharmacological inhibition of the chemokine CCL2 [Baeck et al., 2012; Tacke and Zimmermann, 2014].

KC activation and macrophage recruitment are two separate events and both are necessary for fibrogenesis, but as they occur in parallel, they can be summarised as one KE.

Probably there is a threshold of KC activation and release above which liver damage is induced. Pre-treatment with gadolinium chloride (GdCl), which inhibits KC function, reduced both hepatocyte and sinusoidal epithelial cell injury, as well as decreased the numbers of macrophages appearing in hepatic lesions and inhibited TGF-β1 mRNA expression in macrophages. Experimental inhibition of KC function or depletion of KCs appeared to protect against chemical-induced liver injury [Ide et al.,2005].  

How It Is Measured or Detected

A description of the type(s) of measurements that can be employed to evaluate the KE and the relative level of scientific confidence in those measurements.These can range from citation of specific validated test guidelines, citation of specific methods published in the peer reviewed literature, or outlines of a general protocol or approach (e.g., a protein may be measured by ELISA). Do not provide detailed protocols. More help

In General:

Measurement targets are cell surface and intracellular markers; the specific markers may be cell and species-specific. 

Available methods include cytometry, immunohistochemistry, gene expression sequencing; western blotting, ELISA, and functional assays.

BRAIN 

Neuroinflammation, i.e. the activation of glial cells can be measured by quantification of cellular markers (most commonly), or of released mediators (less common). As multiple activation states exist for the two main cell types involved, it is necessary to measure several markers of neuroinflammation:

  1. Microglial activation can be detected based on the increased numbers of labeled microglia per volume element of brain tissue (due to increase of binding sites, proliferation, and immigration of cells) or on morphological changes. A specific microglial marker, used across different species, is CD11b. Alternatively various specific carbohydrate structures can be stained by lectins (e.g. IB4). Beyond that, various well-established antibodies are available to detect microglia in mouse tissue (F4/80), phagocytic microglia in rat tissue (ED1) or more generally microglia across species (Iba1). Transgenic mice are available with fluorescent proteins under the control of the CD11b promoter to easily quantify microglia without the need for specific stains.
  2. The most frequently used astrocyte marker is glial fibrillary acidic protein, GFAP (99% of all studies) (Eng et al., 2000). This protein is highly specific for astrocytes in the brain, and antibodies are available for immunocytochemical detection. In neuroinflamatory brain regions, the stain becomes more prominent, due to an upregulation of the protein, a shape change/proliferation of the cells, and/or better accessibility of the antibody. Various histological quantification approaches can be used. Occasionally, alternative astrocytic markers, such as vimentin of the S100beta protein, have been used for astrocyte staining (Struzynska et al., 2007). Antibodies for complement component 3 (C3), the most characteristic and highly upregulated marker of A1 neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are commercially available.
  3. All immunocytochemical methods can also be applied to cell culture models.
  4. In patients, microglial accumulation can be monitored by PET imaging, using [11C]-PK 11195 as a microglial marker (Banati et al., 2002).
  5. Activation of glial cells can be assessed in tissue or cell culture models also by quantification of sets of M1/M2 phenotype markers. This can for instance be done by PCR quantification, immunocytochemistry, immunoblotting.
  • Itgam, CD86 expression as markers of M1 microglial phenotype
  • Arg1, MRC1, as markers of M2 microglial phenotype

(for descriptions of techniques, see Falsig 2004; Lund 2006 ; Kuegler 2010; Monnet-Tschudi et al., 2011; Sandström et al., 2014; von Tobel et al.,  2014)

LIVER:

Kupffer cell activation can be measured by means of expressed cytokines, e.g. tissue levels of TNF-a [Vajdova et al,2004], IL-6 expression, measured by immunoassays or Elisa (offered by various companies), soluble CD163 [Grønbaek etal., 2012; Møller  etal.,2012] or increase in expression of Kupffer cell marker genes such as Lyz, Gzmb, and Il1b, (Genome U34A Array, Affymetrix); [Takahara et al.,2006]

Domain of Applicability

A description of the scientific basis for the indicated domains of applicability and the WoE calls (if provided).  More help

Extend to at least invertebrates

Not to plants and not to single-celled organisms

BRAIN:

Tissue resident activation is observed in human, monkey, rat, mouse, and zebrafish, in association with neurodegeneration or following toxicant exposure. Some references (non-exhaustive list) are given below for illustration:

Human: Vennetti et al., 2006

Monkey (Macaca fascicularis): Charleston et al., 1994, 1996

Rat: Little et al., 2012; Zurich et al., 2002; Eskes et al., 2002

Mouse: Liu et al., 2012

Zebrafish: Xu et al., 2014.

LIVER:

Human: Su et al., 2002; Kegel et al., 2015; Boltjes et al.,2014

Rat: Luckey and Peterson,2001

Mouse: Dalton t al., 2009

Life stage applicability: This key event is mainly applicable to all life stages most evidence is derived from adult models (Betlazar et al., 2016; Paladini et al., 2021). 

Sex applicability: This key event is not sex specific (Betlazar et al., 2016; Paladini et al., 2021). 

Evidence for perturbation by a prototypic stressor: Current literature provides ample evidence of tissue resident cell activation being induced by ionizing radiation (Allen et al., 2020; Krukowski et al., 2018; Parihar et al., 2020; Parihar et al., 2018; Parihar et al., 2016; Poulose et al., 2011; Raber et al., 2019; Sumam et al., 2013). 

References

List of the literature that was cited for this KE description. More help

Allen, B. D. et al. (2020), "Mitigation of helium irradiation-induced brain injury by microglia depletion", Journal of Neuroinflammation, Vol. 17/1, Nature, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-020-01790-9. 

Betlazar, C. et al. (2016), "The impact of high and low dose ionising radiation on the central nervous system", Redox Biology, Vol. 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2016.08.002. 

Chan JK, Roth J, Oppenheim JJ, Tracey KJ, Vogl T, Feldmann M, Horwood N, Nanchahal J., Alarmins: awaiting a clinical response. J Clin Invest. 2012 Aug;122(8):2711-9.

Davies LC, Jenkins SJ, Allen JE, Taylor PR, Tissue-resident macrophages, Nat Immunol. 2013 Oct;14(10):986-95. 

Escamilla-Tilch M, Filio-Rodríguez G, García-Rocha R, Mancilla-Herrera I, Mitchison NA, Ruiz-Pacheco JA, Sánchez-García FJ, Sandoval-Borrego D, Vázquez-Sánchez EA, The interplay between pathogen-associated and danger-associated molecular patterns: an inflammatory code in cancer? Immunol Cell Biol. 2013 Nov-Dec;91(10):601-10.

Hussell T, Bell TJ, Alveolar macrophages: plasticity in a tissue-specific context, Nat Rev Immunol. 2014 Feb;14(2):81-93.

Kim ND, Luster AD. The role of tissue resident cells in neutrophil recruitment ,Trends Immunol. 2015 Sep;36(9):547-55.

Krukowski, K. et al. (2018), "Female mice are protected from space radiation-induced maladaptive responses", Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, Vol. 74, Academic Press Inc., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2018.08.008. 

Paladini, M. S. et al. (2021), "Microglia depletion and cognitive functions after brain injury: From trauma to galactic cosmic ray", Neuroscience Letters, Vol. 741, Elsevier, Amsterdam, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135462. 

Parihar, V. K. et al. (2016), "Cosmic radiation exposure and persistent cognitive dysfunction", Scientific Reports, Vol. 6/June, Nature Publishing Group, https://doi.org/10.1038/srep34774. 

Parihar, V. K. et al. (2018), "Persistent nature of alterations in cognition and neuronal circuit excitability after exposure to simulated cosmic radiation in mice", Experimental Neurology, Vol. 305, Academic Press Inc., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.03.009. 

Parihar, V. K. et al. (2020), "Sex-Specific Cognitive Deficits Following Space Radiation Exposure", Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, Vol. 14, Frontiers, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.535885. 

Poulose, S. M. et al. (2011), "Exposure to 16O-particle radiation causes aging-like decrements in rats through increased oxidative stress, inflammation and loss of autophagy", Radiation Research, Vol. 176/6, BioOne, https://doi.org/10.1667/RR2605.1. 

Raber, J. et al. (2019), "Combined Effects of Three High-Energy Charged Particle Beams Important for Space Flight on Brain, Behavioral and Cognitive Endpoints in B6D2F1 Female and Male Mice", Frontiers in physiology, Vol. 10, Frontiers, https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00179. 

Saïd-Sadier N, Ojcius DM., Alarmins, inflammasomes and immunity. Biomed J. 2012 Nov-Dec;35(6):437-49.

Schaefer L, Complexity of danger: the diverse nature of damage-associated molecular patterns, J Biol Chem. 2014 Dec 19;289(51):35237-45.

Suman, S. et al. (2013), "Therapeutic and space radiation exposure of mouse brain causes impaired dna repair response and premature senescence by chronic oxidant production", Aging, Vol. 5/8, https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.100587. 

BRAIN:

Aschner M (1998) Immune and inflammatory responses in the CNS: modulation by astrocytes. ToxicolLett 103: 283-287

Banati, R. B. (2002). "Visualising microglial activation in vivo." Glia 40: 206-217.

Brown GC, Bal-Price A (2003) Inflammatory neurodegeneration mediated by nitric oxide, glutamate, and mitochondria. Mol Neurobiol 27: 325-355

Charleston JS, Body RL, Bolender RP, Mottet NK, Vahter ME, Burbacher TM. 1996. Changes in the number of astrocytes and microglia in the thalamus of the monkey Macaca fascicularis following long-term subclinical methylmercury exposure. NeuroToxicology 17: 127-138.

Charleston JS, Bolender RP, Mottet NK, Body RL, Vahter ME, Burbacher TM. 1994. Increases in the number of reactive glia in the visual cortex of Macaca fascicularis following subclinical long-term methyl mercury exposure. ToxicolApplPharmacol 129: 196-206.

Dong Y, Benveniste EN (2001) Immune Function of Astrocytes. Glia 36: 180-190

Eng LF, Ghirnikar RS, Lee YL (2000) Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein: GFAP-Thirty-One Years (1969-2000). NeurochemRes 25: 1439-1451

Eskes C, Honegger P, Juillerat-Jeanneret L, Monnet-Tschudi F. 2002. Microglial reaction induced by noncytotoxic methylmercury treatment leads to neuroprotection via interactions with astrocytes and IL-6 release. Glia 37(1): 43-52.

Falsig J, Latta M, Leist M. Defined inflammatory states in astrocyte cultures correlation with susceptibility towards CD95-driven apoptosis. J Neurochem. 2004  Jan;88(1):181-93.

Falsig J, Pörzgen P, Lund S, Schrattenholz A, Leist M. The inflammatory transcriptome of reactive murine astrocytes and implications for their innate immune function. J Neurochem. 2006 Feb;96(3):893-907.

Falsig J, van Beek J, Hermann C, Leist M. Molecular basis for detection of invading pathogens in the brain. J Neurosci Res. 2008 May 15;86(7):1434-47.

Glass CK, Saijo K, Winner B, Marchetto MC, Gage FH (2010). Mechanisms underlying inflammation in neurodegeneration. Cell. 2010 Mar 19;140(6):918-34.

Gordon S (2003) Alternative activation of macrophages. Nat Rev Immunol 3: 23-35

Graeber MB, Streit WJ (1990) Microglia: immune network in the CNS. Brain Pathol 1: 2-5

Kigerl KA, Gensel JC, Ankeny DP, Alexander JK, Donnelly DJ, Popovich PG (2009) Identification of two distinct macrophage subsets with divergent effects causing either neurotoxicity or regeneration in the injured mouse spinal cord. J Neurosci 29: 13435-13444

Kuegler PB, Zimmer B, Waldmann T, Baudis B, Ilmjärv S, Hescheler J, Gaughwin P, Brundin P, Mundy W, Bal-Price AK, Schrattenholz A, Krause KH, van Thriel C, Rao MS, Kadereit S, Leist M. Markers of murine embryonic and neural stem cells, neurons and astrocytes: reference points for developmental neurotoxicity testing. ALTEX. 2010;27(1):17-42

Kreutzberg GW (1995) Microglia, the first line of defence in brain pathologies. Arzneimttelforsch 45: 357-360

Kreutzberg GW (1996) Microglia : a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends Neurosci 19: 312-318

Liddelow SA, Guttenplan KA, Clarke LE, Bennett FC, Bohlen CJ, Schirmer L, et al. 2017. Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia. Nature 541(7638): 481-487.

Little AR, Miller DB, Li S, Kashon ML, O'Callaghan JP. 2012. Trimethyltin-induced neurotoxicity: gene expression pathway analysis, q-RT-PCR and immunoblotting reveal early effects associated with hippocampal damage and gliosis. Neurotoxicol Teratol 34(1): 72-82.

Liu Y, Hu J, Wu J, Zhu C, Hui Y, Han Y, et al. 2012. alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated neuroprotection against dopaminergic neuron loss in an MPTP mouse model via inhibition of astrocyte activation. J Neuroinflammation 9: 98.

Lund S, Christensen KV, Hedtjärn M, Mortensen AL, Hagberg H, Falsig J, Hasseldam H, Schrattenholz A, Pörzgen P, Leist M. The dynamics of the LPS triggered inflammatory response of murine microglia under different culture and in vivo conditions. J Neuroimmunol. 2006 Nov;180(1-2):71-87.

Maresz K, Ponomarev ED, Barteneva N, Tan Y, Mann MK, Dittel BN (2008) IL-13 induces the expression of the alternative activation marker Ym1 in a subset of testicular macrophages. J Reprod Immunol 78: 140-148

Monnet-Tschudi F, Zurich MG, Honegger P (2007) Neurotoxicant-induced inflammatory response in three-dimensional brain cell cultures. Hum Exp Toxicol 26: 339-346

Monnet-Tschudi, F., A. Defaux, et al. (2011). "Methods to assess neuroinflammation." Curr Protoc Toxicol Chapter 12: Unit12 19.            

Mosser DM, Edwards JP (2008) Exploring the full spectrum of macrophage activation. Nat Rev Immunol 8: 958-969

Nakajima K, Kohsaka S. 2004. Microglia: Neuroprotective and neurotrophic cells in the central nervous system. Current Drug Targets-Cardiovasc & Haematol Disorders 4: 65-84.

Perego C, Fumagalli S, De Simoni MG (2011) Temporal pattern of expression and colocalization of microglia/macrophage phenotype markers following brain ischemic injury in mice. J Neuroinflammation 8: 174

Ponomarev ED, Maresz K, Tan Y, Dittel BN (2007) CNS-derived interleukin-4 is essential for the regulation of autoimmune inflammation and induces a state of alternative activation in microglial cells. J Neurosci 27: 10714-10721

Ponomarev ED, Shriver LP, Maresz K, Dittel BN (2005) Microglial cell activation and proliferation precedes the onset of CNS autoimmunity. J Neurosci Res 81: 374-389

Ransohoff RM. 2016. A polarizing question: do M1 and M2 microglia exist? Nat Neurosci 19(8): 987-991.

Sandstrom von Tobel, J., D. Zoia, et al. (2014). "Immediate and delayed effects of subchronic Paraquat exposure during an early differentiation stage in 3D-rat brain cell cultures." Toxicol Lett. DOI : 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.02.001

Struzynska L, Dabrowska-Bouta B, Koza K, Sulkowski G (2007) Inflammation-Like Glial Response in Lead-Exposed Immature Rat Brain. Toxicol Sc 95:156-162

von Tobel, J. S., P. Antinori, et al. (2014). "Repeated exposure to Ochratoxin A generates a neuroinflammatory response, characterized by neurodegenerative M1 microglial phenotype." Neurotoxicology 44C: 61-70.

Venneti S, Lopresti BJ, Wiley CA. 2006. The peripheral benzodiazepine receptor (Translocator protein 18kDa) in microglia: from pathology to imaging. Prog Neurobiol 80(6): 308-322.

Xu DP, Zhang K, Zhang ZJ, Sun YW, Guo BJ, Wang YQ, et al. 2014. A novel tetramethylpyrazine bis-nitrone (TN-2) protects against 6-hydroxyldopamine-induced neurotoxicity via modulation of the NF-kappaB and the PKCalpha/PI3-K/Akt pathways. Neurochem Int 78: 76-85.

Zurich M-G, Eskes C, Honegger P, Bérode M, Monnet-Tschudi F. 2002. Maturation-dependent neurotoxicity of lead aceate in vitro: Implication of glial reactions. J Neurosc Res 70: 108-116.

LIVER:

Baeck, C. et al. (2012), Pharmacological inhibition of the chemokine CCL2 (MCP-1) diminishes liver macrophage infiltration and steatohepatitis in chronic hepatic injury, Gut, vol. 61, no. 3, pp.416–426.

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